In classic genetics, the traditional approach was to find a gene product and then try to identify the gene itself. In molecular genetics, the reverse has been done by identifying genes purely on the basis of their position in the genome with no knowledge whatsoever of the gene product. This revolutionary approach is reverse genetics.
Reverse genetics is an approach to discovering the function of a gene by analyzing the phenotypic effects of specific gene sequences obtained by DNA sequencing.
Through genetic analyses, the function of genes is investigated by studying organisms where gene function is altered. In classical forward genetic screening, individuals are treated with mutagens to induce DNA lesions and mutants with a phenotype of interest are sought. After a mutant is found, the gene mutated is identified through standard molecular techniques. Detailed studies of the mutant phenotype coupled with molecular analyses of the gene allows elucidation of the gene's function. Forward genetics has been responsible for our understanding of many biological processes and is an excellent method for identifying genes that function in a particular process.In reverse genetics, the functional study of a gene starts with the gene sequence rather than a mutant phenotype.
Saturday, June 5, 2010
Wednesday, April 14, 2010
IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT GENES
-> Genes are the units of instruction that the cells of the human body use to carry out their functions.
-> The chemical language in which genes are written is called DNA.
-> There are approximately 23,000 genes in the human genome.
-> A genome is the total compliment of genes for an organism.
-> Gene is the structural unit of inheritance in living organisms.
-> Each gene consists of a specific sequence of DNA building blocks called nucleotides.
-> The scientific study of inheritance is genetics.
-> Genes govern both the structure and metabolic functions of the cells, and thus of the entire organism and, when located in reproductive cells, they pass their information to the next generation.
-> The chemical language in which genes are written is called DNA.
-> There are approximately 23,000 genes in the human genome.
-> A genome is the total compliment of genes for an organism.
-> Gene is the structural unit of inheritance in living organisms.
-> Each gene consists of a specific sequence of DNA building blocks called nucleotides.
-> The scientific study of inheritance is genetics.
-> Genes govern both the structure and metabolic functions of the cells, and thus of the entire organism and, when located in reproductive cells, they pass their information to the next generation.
IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT DNA
-> DNA is found in all living things.
-> The structure of DNA can be assumed to a twisted ladder.
-> There are many conformations of DNA: A-DNA, B-DNA, and Z-DNA are the only ones found in nature.
-> Almost all the cells in our body have DNA with the exception of red blood cells.
-> nuclear DNA is DNA found in the nucleus of cells.
-> Humans have 46 chromosomes.
-> There’s a copy of our entire DNA sequence in every cell of our body with one exception.
-> Our entire DNA sequence is called a genome.
-> There’s an estimated 3 billion DNA bases in our genome.
-> A complete 3 billion base genome would take 3 gigabytes of storage space.
-> Genes are made of DNA.
-> Genes are pieces of DNA passed from parent to offspring that contain hereditary information.
-> DNA tests can help us understand our risk of disease.
-> The structure of DNA can be assumed to a twisted ladder.
-> There are many conformations of DNA: A-DNA, B-DNA, and Z-DNA are the only ones found in nature.
-> Almost all the cells in our body have DNA with the exception of red blood cells.
-> nuclear DNA is DNA found in the nucleus of cells.
-> Humans have 46 chromosomes.
-> There’s a copy of our entire DNA sequence in every cell of our body with one exception.
-> Our entire DNA sequence is called a genome.
-> There’s an estimated 3 billion DNA bases in our genome.
-> A complete 3 billion base genome would take 3 gigabytes of storage space.
-> Genes are made of DNA.
-> Genes are pieces of DNA passed from parent to offspring that contain hereditary information.
-> DNA tests can help us understand our risk of disease.
Sunday, April 11, 2010
Biotechnology
Biotechnology is a field of biology that involves the use of living things in engineering, technology, medicine, etc.It is the use of micro-organisms and biological processes in industrial production.
Biotechnology draws on the pure biological sciences (genetics, microbiology, animal cell culture, molecular biology, biochemistry,embryology, cell biology).Bio-Technology is a research oriented science, a combination of Biology and Technology.
It covers a wide variety of subjects like Genetics, Biochemistry, Microbiology,Chemistry and Engineering.
There are many applications of biotechnology
such as developing various medicines, vaccines and diagnostics, increasing productivity, improving energy production and conservation.
Biotechnology draws on the pure biological sciences (genetics, microbiology, animal cell culture, molecular biology, biochemistry,embryology, cell biology).Bio-Technology is a research oriented science, a combination of Biology and Technology.
It covers a wide variety of subjects like Genetics, Biochemistry, Microbiology,Chemistry and Engineering.
There are many applications of biotechnology
such as developing various medicines, vaccines and diagnostics, increasing productivity, improving energy production and conservation.
Bioinformatics
Bioinformatics is the application of information technology and computer science to the field of molecular biology. Its primary use has been in genomics and genetics.
The primary goal of bioinformatics is to increase the understanding of biological processes.Bioinformatics was applied in the creation and maintenance of a database to store biological information at the beginning of the "genomic revolution", such as nucleotide and amino acid sequences.
SO Bioinformatics is the application of computer technology to the management of biological information. Computers are used to gather, store, analyze and integrate biological and genetic information which can then be applied to gene-based drug discovery and development.There are three important sub-disciplines within bioinformatics: the development of new algorithms and statistics with which to assess relationships among members of large data sets; the analysis and interpretation of various types of data including nucleotide and amino acid sequences, protein domains, and protein structures; and the development and implementation of tools that enable efficient access and management of different types of information.
The primary goal of bioinformatics is to increase the understanding of biological processes.Bioinformatics was applied in the creation and maintenance of a database to store biological information at the beginning of the "genomic revolution", such as nucleotide and amino acid sequences.
SO Bioinformatics is the application of computer technology to the management of biological information. Computers are used to gather, store, analyze and integrate biological and genetic information which can then be applied to gene-based drug discovery and development.There are three important sub-disciplines within bioinformatics: the development of new algorithms and statistics with which to assess relationships among members of large data sets; the analysis and interpretation of various types of data including nucleotide and amino acid sequences, protein domains, and protein structures; and the development and implementation of tools that enable efficient access and management of different types of information.
Genome
A genome is one which is entirety of an organism's hereditary information.
The genome includes both the genes and the non-coding sequences of the DNA.It can be defined as the ordering of genes in a haploid set of chromosomes of a particular organism; the full DNA sequence of an organism.It is the complete genetic material of a living thing.
Humans and many other higher animals actually have two genomes, which together make up the total genome:
1) A chromosomal genome -- inside the nucleus of the cell in the familiar form of chromosomes.
2) A mitochondrial genome -- outside the nucleus in the cytoplasm of the cell,usually in the form of one round chromosome (the mitochondrial chromosome)
Full genome sequencing is a laboratory process that determines the complete DNA sequence of an organism's genome at a single time.Full genome sequencing would have been nearly impossible before the advent of the microprocessor, computers, and the Information Age.Full genome sequencing should not be confused with DNA profiling.
The genome includes both the genes and the non-coding sequences of the DNA.It can be defined as the ordering of genes in a haploid set of chromosomes of a particular organism; the full DNA sequence of an organism.It is the complete genetic material of a living thing.
Humans and many other higher animals actually have two genomes, which together make up the total genome:
1) A chromosomal genome -- inside the nucleus of the cell in the familiar form of chromosomes.
2) A mitochondrial genome -- outside the nucleus in the cytoplasm of the cell,usually in the form of one round chromosome (the mitochondrial chromosome)
Full genome sequencing is a laboratory process that determines the complete DNA sequence of an organism's genome at a single time.Full genome sequencing would have been nearly impossible before the advent of the microprocessor, computers, and the Information Age.Full genome sequencing should not be confused with DNA profiling.
Stem cells
Stem cells are cells found in most multi-cellular organisms.They are characterized by the ability to renew themselves through mitotic cell division and differentiating into a diverse range of specialized cell types.
Stem cells can be grown and transformed into specialized cells with characteristics consistent with cells of various tissues such as muscles or nerves through cell culture.They have a very good potential to develop into many different cell types in the body during early life and growth.
When a stem cell divides, each new cell has the potential either to remain a stem cell or become another type of cell with a more specialized function, such as a muscle cell, a red blood cell, or a brain cell.
Stem cell treatments are a type of genetic medicine that introduce new cells into damaged tissue in order to treat a disease or injury.The ability of stem cells to self-renew and give rise to subsequent generations that can differentiate offers a large potential to culture tissues that can replace diseased and damaged tissues in the body, without the risk of rejection and side effects.There are a potential treatments like in Brain damage,Cancer,Spinal cord injury...etc.
Stem cells can be grown and transformed into specialized cells with characteristics consistent with cells of various tissues such as muscles or nerves through cell culture.They have a very good potential to develop into many different cell types in the body during early life and growth.
When a stem cell divides, each new cell has the potential either to remain a stem cell or become another type of cell with a more specialized function, such as a muscle cell, a red blood cell, or a brain cell.
Stem cell treatments are a type of genetic medicine that introduce new cells into damaged tissue in order to treat a disease or injury.The ability of stem cells to self-renew and give rise to subsequent generations that can differentiate offers a large potential to culture tissues that can replace diseased and damaged tissues in the body, without the risk of rejection and side effects.There are a potential treatments like in Brain damage,Cancer,Spinal cord injury...etc.
Gene therapy
Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into an individual's cell and biological tissues to treat disease, such as cancer where deleterious mutant alleles are replaced with functional ones.It is an experimental technique that uses genes to treat or prevent disease.In the future, this technique may allow doctors to treat a disorder by inserting a gene into a patient’s cells instead of using drugs or surgery.
There are many advantages of gene therapy like tt can cure the humanbeings who have genetic disorders.This is the main advantage of gene therapy in human life.
There are two types of gene therapy:
1) Germ line gene therapy
2) Somatic gene therapy
In germline gene therapy germ cells, i.e., sperm or eggs, are modified by the introduction of functional genes, which are ordinarily integrated into their genomes.
In SOmatic gene therapy the therapeutic genes are transferred into the somatic cells of a patient.
There are many advantages of gene therapy like tt can cure the humanbeings who have genetic disorders.This is the main advantage of gene therapy in human life.
There are two types of gene therapy:
1) Germ line gene therapy
2) Somatic gene therapy
In germline gene therapy germ cells, i.e., sperm or eggs, are modified by the introduction of functional genes, which are ordinarily integrated into their genomes.
In SOmatic gene therapy the therapeutic genes are transferred into the somatic cells of a patient.
DNA nanotechnology
DNA nanotechnology is a branch of nanotechnology which uses the unique molecular recognition properties of DNA and other nucleic acids to create designed, controllable structures out of DNA.
DNA nanotechnology makes use of branched DNA structures to create DNA complexes with useful properties.DNA nanotechnology is a new area of research. DNA nanotechnology focuses on creating molecules with designed functionalities as well as structures. Many classes of functional systems have been demonstrated.DNA nanotechnology has been applied to the related field of DNA computing.
DNA nanotechnology makes use of branched DNA structures to create DNA complexes with useful properties.DNA nanotechnology is a new area of research. DNA nanotechnology focuses on creating molecules with designed functionalities as well as structures. Many classes of functional systems have been demonstrated.DNA nanotechnology has been applied to the related field of DNA computing.
Cloning
Cloning can be defined as is the process of similar producing populations of genetically identical individuals that occurs in nature.It refers to the processes used to create copies of DNA fragments,cells,or organisms.
Cloning describes the processes used to create an exact genetic replica of another cell, tissue or organism. The copied material, which has the same genetic makeup as the original, is referred to as a clone.
There are three different types of cloning:
1) Gene cloning, which creates copies of genes or segments of DNA
2) Reproductive cloning, which creates copies of whole animals
3) Therapeutic cloning, which creates embryonic stem cells.
There are both advantages and disadvantages of cloning.
So finally cloning is the process of making a genetcally identical organism.
Cloning describes the processes used to create an exact genetic replica of another cell, tissue or organism. The copied material, which has the same genetic makeup as the original, is referred to as a clone.
There are three different types of cloning:
1) Gene cloning, which creates copies of genes or segments of DNA
2) Reproductive cloning, which creates copies of whole animals
3) Therapeutic cloning, which creates embryonic stem cells.
There are both advantages and disadvantages of cloning.
So finally cloning is the process of making a genetcally identical organism.
Genetic fingerprinting
Genetic fingerprinting is also called as DNA profiling.
It is a technique employed by forensic scientists to assist in the identification of individuals on the basis of their respective DNA profiles. DNA profiles are encrypted sets of numbers that reflect a person's DNA makeup, which can also be used as the person's identifier.Although 99.9% of human DNA sequences are the same in every person, enough of the DNA is different to distinguish one individual from another.Genetic fingerprinting is an important tool for forensic investigators.
Genetic fingerprinting allows for positive identification, not only of body remains, but also of suspects in custody.So in order for better understanding we can say that genetic fingerprinting is the procedure of analyzing the DNA in samples of a person's body tissue or body fluid for the purpose of identification.
It is a technique employed by forensic scientists to assist in the identification of individuals on the basis of their respective DNA profiles. DNA profiles are encrypted sets of numbers that reflect a person's DNA makeup, which can also be used as the person's identifier.Although 99.9% of human DNA sequences are the same in every person, enough of the DNA is different to distinguish one individual from another.Genetic fingerprinting is an important tool for forensic investigators.
Genetic fingerprinting allows for positive identification, not only of body remains, but also of suspects in custody.So in order for better understanding we can say that genetic fingerprinting is the procedure of analyzing the DNA in samples of a person's body tissue or body fluid for the purpose of identification.
Genetic Engineering
Genetic Engineering is a field which deals with manipulation of DNA to change heriditary features.
Genetic engineering is different from traditional breeding, where the organism's genes are manipulated indirectly.Genetic engineering uses the techniques of molecular cloning and transformation to alter the structure and characteristics of genes directly.Genetic engineering techniques have been applied to various industries, principally medicine and agriculture.
There are also applications of genetic engineering- Molecular biologists have discovered many enzymes which change the structure of DNA in living organisms. Some of these enzymes can cut and join strands of DNA. Using such enzymes, scientists learned to cut specific genes from DNA and to build customized DNA using these genes. They also learned about vectors, strands of DNA such as viruses, which can infect a cell and insert themselves into its DNA.
One of the best-known applications of genetic engineering is the creation of GMOs for food use (genetically modified foods); such foods resist insect pests, bacterial or fungal infection, resist herbicides to improve yield, have longer freshness than otherwise, or have superior nutritional value
Genetic engineering is different from traditional breeding, where the organism's genes are manipulated indirectly.Genetic engineering uses the techniques of molecular cloning and transformation to alter the structure and characteristics of genes directly.Genetic engineering techniques have been applied to various industries, principally medicine and agriculture.
There are also applications of genetic engineering- Molecular biologists have discovered many enzymes which change the structure of DNA in living organisms. Some of these enzymes can cut and join strands of DNA. Using such enzymes, scientists learned to cut specific genes from DNA and to build customized DNA using these genes. They also learned about vectors, strands of DNA such as viruses, which can infect a cell and insert themselves into its DNA.
One of the best-known applications of genetic engineering is the creation of GMOs for food use (genetically modified foods); such foods resist insect pests, bacterial or fungal infection, resist herbicides to improve yield, have longer freshness than otherwise, or have superior nutritional value
What is DNA?
The fullform of DNA IS deoxyribonucleic acid.
It is a substance storing genetic information.
The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information.
The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. DNA is often compared to a set of blueprints or a recipe, or a code, since it contains the instructions needed to construct other components of cells,such as proteins and RNA molecules.
SO DNA is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms.
An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies of itself.
So finally DNA is a nucleic acid that carries the genetic information in the cell and is capable of self-replication and synthesis of RNA.DNA consists of two long chains of nucleotides twisted into a double helix and joined by hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases adenine and thymine or cytosine and guanine. The sequence of nucleotides determines individual hereditary characteristics.
It is a substance storing genetic information.
The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information.
The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. DNA is often compared to a set of blueprints or a recipe, or a code, since it contains the instructions needed to construct other components of cells,such as proteins and RNA molecules.
SO DNA is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms.
An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies of itself.
So finally DNA is a nucleic acid that carries the genetic information in the cell and is capable of self-replication and synthesis of RNA.DNA consists of two long chains of nucleotides twisted into a double helix and joined by hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases adenine and thymine or cytosine and guanine. The sequence of nucleotides determines individual hereditary characteristics.
What are genes?
A gene is a unit of heredity in a living organism.All living things depend on genes. All organisms have many genes corresponding to many different biological traits, some of which are immediately visible, such as eye color or number of limbs, and some of which are not, such as blood type or increased risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life.
SO a gene can be defined as as a region of DNA that controls a hereditary characteristic.
A gene carries biological information in a form that must be copied and transmitted from each cell to all its progeny.
Genes are also defined as working subunits of DNA.Each gene contains a particular set of instructions, usually coding for a particular protein.
So finally gene can be defined as a hereditary unit consisting of a sequence of DNA that occupies a specific location on a chromosome and determines a particular characteristic in an organism.
SO a gene can be defined as as a region of DNA that controls a hereditary characteristic.
A gene carries biological information in a form that must be copied and transmitted from each cell to all its progeny.
Genes are also defined as working subunits of DNA.Each gene contains a particular set of instructions, usually coding for a particular protein.
So finally gene can be defined as a hereditary unit consisting of a sequence of DNA that occupies a specific location on a chromosome and determines a particular characteristic in an organism.
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